GERUND
Unlike a noun of verbal origin which tends to express the fact or the result of the action or state, the gerund emphasizes the process itself, it shows an action or state of being.
THE USE OF GERUND
The gerund is used like a noun:
Without your helping me, I would not have achieved my goal.
Solving problems is satisfying.
The gerund is formed by adding the suffix - ing to the stem of the verb.
NOTE: necessary changes
lie - lying (ie - y)
take - taking (single e: e is ommited)
sit - sitting (single vowel + single consonant - single vowel + double consonant)
THE FUNCTIONS OF GERUND
The Gerund has the following functions in the sentence:
1. subject
e.g. My answering in the affirmative gave him great satisfaction.
2. object
e.g. Children enjoy playing in the sand.
3. attribute
e.g. There are no chances of being promoted here.
4. predicative
e.g. His occupation is writing.
5. adverbial modifier of:
Time e.g. On reaching the hotel we got out of the taxi.
Manner e.g. We will succeed by joining our effort.
Attendent circumstances e.g. He left the room without saying 'goodby' to anybody.
Purpose e.g. I called my friend for being given advice.
Condition e.g. Without working, you cannot achieve any results.
Reason e.g. We are all wiser now for having been through that experience.
Concession e.g. We could understand him in spite of his speaking rather fast.
NOTE 1: Some verbs are always followed by the gerund: admit, appreciate, avoid, consider, delay, deny,
detest, dislike, enjoy, explain, fancy, feel like, finish, forgive, can't help, imagine, it involves, keep, mention,
mind, miss, pardon, postpone, practise, prevent, recall, resent, resist, risk, stop, suggest, understand.
e.g. He denied commiting a crime.
Fancy finding you here at such an hour.
Forgive my speaking plainly.
The gerund can follow need and want.
e.g. He needs encouraging.
These verbs are followed by - ing form: hear, keep, smell, start, stop, watch:
e.g. When are you going to start working?
But if we refer to someone else, we use a direct object after the verb:
e.g. When are you going to start him (John, etc.) working?
These verbs always have a direct object: catch, find, leave, notice, observe, perceive, see:
e.g. I'd better catch you cheating on me.
Many verbs have the structure verb + preposition (in/for/about etc.) + object.
Verb Preposition Object (noun)
They talked about the problem.
NOTE 2: Gerund is used after the following prepositions:
When a verb follows a preposition, it takes a gerund:
1. Example: I apologise for interrupting you.
Verb + for doing (something)
blame (someone), forgive (someone), have an excuse, have a reason, be responsible, thank (someone)
2. Example: He was accused of misleading them.
Verb + of doing something
be capable, for the purpose, be guilty, be tired, instead, take advantage, take care
3. Example: I look forward to spending time with my close friends.
Verb + to doing (something)
be accustomed, in addition, be committed, be devoted, object, be opposed, be used
4. Example: I often talk about moving to a different city.
Verb + about / of doing (something)
complain, dream, think
5. Example: I am interested in travelling to South America.
Verb + in doing (something)
believe, participate, succeed
6. Example: I stopped him from making a silly mistake.
Verb + from doing (something)
keep (someone), prevent (someone), prohibit (someone), dissuade (someone)
7. I am worried about not passing my driving test.
Verb + about doing (something)
be excited
8. Example: I insist on paying the bill.
Verb + on doing (something)
NOTE 3: the gerund is used after the following expressions:
It's (no) good, It's no use, There is no point in, It's (not) worth, have difficulty, be busy, a waste of
money/time, spend/waste time:
e.g. It' no good trying to persuade him. You won't succeed.
NOTE 4: we use go + gerund for a number of activities (especially sports):
e.g. Barry lives by the sea and he's got a boat, so he often goes sailing.
There is plenty of snow in the mountains so we'll be able to go skiing.
NOTE 5: preposition + ing: special cases
We use by ... ing to say how - by what method or means - we do something. We use for ... ing to give
the purpose of something - to say what it is used for. On doing something (formal) means 'when / as soon
as you do something'.
e.g. You can find out somebody's phone number by looking in the directory.
He made his money by buying and selling houses.
e.g. 'What's that funny knife for?' 'Opening letters'.
e.g. On hearing the fire alarm, go straight to the nearest exit.
On arriving at the office, she noticed that her secretary was absent.
NOTE 6: Do not confuse I am used to doing (be/get used to) and I used to do.
They are different in structure and meaning:
e.g. I am used to driving on the left because I have lived in Britain for a long time. (It isn't strange
or new for me.)
e.g. I used to drive to work every day, but these days I usually go by bike. (I did something regularly
in the past but no longer do it.)
NOTE 7: in formal English, possessive + Gerund can be used: e.g. I have no objection to your arriving late.
In conversational English, the possessive is not used: the object form is used instead: e.g. I don't mind
him coming late.
INFINITIVE
FORMS TENSE/VOICE DISTINCTIONS
Active Passive
Indefinite to write be written
Progressive to be writing -
Perfect to have written to have been written
Perfect Progressive to have been writing -
Negative form: not + Infinitive
e.g. She asked me not to forget to post the letter.
The Present (Indefinite) Infinitive refers to the present or future. e.g. I hope to meet her tonight.
The Progressive Infinitive expresses an action happening now. e.g. He is sure to be working now.
The Perfect Infinitive is used to show that the action of the infinitive happened before the action of the verb.
e.g. He is glad to have gone there before the war.
The Perfect Progressive Infinitive is used to emphasize the duration of the action of the infinitive which
happened before the action of the main verb. e.g. He seems to have been working since early in the morning.
THE FUNCTIONS OF THE INFINITIVE IN THE SENTENCE
1. The infinitive as a subject. It can be rendered as an infinitive, a noun, a clause.
- To walk in the garden was very pleasant.
- Even to think of it gave her torture.
- To be recognized gave him great joy.
Sentences with an infinitive often start with an introductory subject 'it'.
e.g. It is useless to discuss this question.
2. The infinitive is used to express purpose. e.g. To understand the rule better I read it several times.
'in order to + infinitive' and 'so as to + infinitive' are also used to express purpose, but:
- 'in order to + infinitive' is more formal than 'to-infinitive'.
- 'in order to + infinitive' and 'so as to + infinitive' are more common than 'to-infinitive' before the verbs be, have, know: e.g. I arrived at the office early so as to be ready for the conference.
- 'in order not to' + infinitive' and 'so as not to' + infinitive' are more common than 'not to-infinitive' to express a negative purpose: e.g. We went along silently so as not to disturb anyone.
NOTE 1: the to-infinitive is used after certain verbs which express plans, decisions, expectations and
commitments: offer, agree, refuse, decide, plan, arrange, hope, aim, learn, deserve, afford, forget, attempt,
manage, fail etc.
e.g. Have you decided to attend the meeting after all?
NOTE 2: 'to - infinitive' can be used after certain adjectives: e.g. I'm glad to see you again.
If an infinitive needs its own subject, this is introduced by 'for':
e.g. She can't come. - It's impossible for her to come.
He is not usually late. - It's unusual for him to be late.
NOTE 3: "to-infinitive" can be used after certain nouns and pronouns, to show what is to be done with
them or how they are to be used: e.g. I've got some homework to do.
NOTE 4: "to-infinitive" is used in the constructions with "too" and "enough":
e.g. She is too tired to go out. (too + adjective/adverb - negative meaning).
e.g. He is rich enough to afford a yacht. (adjective/adverb + enough - positive meaning)
e.g. He has got enough patience to wait for hours. (enough + noun)
NOTE 5: "to-Infinitive" is used after question words (what, how, where, etc.) except why:
e.g. Have you decided where to go for holiday?
NOTE 6: "to-infinitive" is used after the first / the second / the third, etc. and also after the next, the last,
the only: e.g. Everybody was late except me. I was the only one to arrive on time.
NOTE 7: the infinitive without "to" is used:
- After modal verbs: e.g. You must be back at 12 o'clock.
- After had better / would rather: e.g. I'd rather go to the theatre.
- After make / let / see / hear / feel + object in the active voice: e.g. He made them apologise. But in the passive form "to-infinitve" is used: e.g. He was made to apologise.
- After "Why not ...?" e.g. Why not to phone him tomorrow?
NOTE 8: the perfect infinitive is used:
- In the third type of the conditional sentences: e.g. If he had worked harder, he would have passed the exam.
- With the modal verbs in the past: e.g. Who could have told him the news?
- After verbs such as want, expect, hope as a future perfect: e.g. I hope to have finished my report by Christmas.
- After certain adjectives, as a past: e.g. I was disappointed to have missed the performance.
GERUND OR INFINITIVE
Verbs taking "to-infinitive" or the Gerund without a change in meaning:
1. begin, start, continue + to-infinitive or the gerund. However, we never have two -ing forms together.
e.g. She began dancing / to dance.
But: It's beginning to get cold. Not: It’s beginning getting
cold.
2. advise, allow, permit, recommend, encourage when followed by an object or in passive form take
a "to-infinitive".
They take the -ing form when not followed by an object.
e.g. He doesn't allow us to smoke here.
They aren't allowed to smoke here.
They don't allow smoking here.
3. it needs / it requires / it wants + - ing form "It needs" can also be followed by a passive infinitive.
e.g. The house needs / requires / wants painting.
The car needs repaiting / to be repaired.
Verbs taking "to-infinitive" or the Gerund with a change in meaning:
1. FORGET + to-infinitive = not remember: e.g. I'm sorry. I forgot to post the letter.
FORGET + ing-form = forget a past event: e.g. I'll never forget travelling across Europe.
2. REMEMBER + to-infinitive = remember to do something: e.g. Remember to turn off the light
before leaving.
REMEMBER + ing-form = recall a past event: e.g. I remember staying in this hotel before.
3. GO ON + to-infinitive = to finish one activity and start another: e.g. After finishing the report,
she went on to type some letters.
GO ON + ing-form = to continue an action: e.g. The went on talking for hours.
4. MEAN + to-infinitive = to intend to: e.g. He means to find a job abroad.
MEAN + ing-form = to involve: e.g. Finding a job means attending many interviews.
5. REGRET + to-infinitive = is used in announcements of bad news: e.g. I regret to inform you
that the meeting has been called off.
REGRET + ing-form = to be sorry for something that happened: e.g. I regret speaking so rudely.
6. TRY + to-infinitive = to do one's best, to attempt: e.g. The firemen are trying to put out the fire.
TRY + ing-form = to experiment in order to achieve an objective, to resolve a particular situation:
e.g. If you want a good job, try making a good interview.
7. WANT + to-infinitive = to wish: e.g. I want to spend my holidays in Spain.
WANT + ing-form = to need something done: e.g. This room wants painting again.
8. STOP + to-infinitive = to interrupt one activity in order to do another: e.g. He stopped to get some
petrol before continuing his journey.
STOP + ing-form = to finish an action: Stop talking, please!
9. BE SORRY + to-infinitive = to regret: e.g. I'm sorry to hear they fired him.
BE SORRY + ing-form = to apologize: e.g. I'm sorry for being / having been unfair to you.
10. BE AFRAID + to-infinitive = the subject is too frightened to do something: She is afraid to climb
up the tree.
BE AFRAID + ing-form = the subject is afraid that what is described by the -ing form may
happen: e.g. She won't climb up the tree; she is afraid of falling. (She is afraid because she might
fall)
11. LIKE / DISLIKE / LOVE / HATE + to-infinitiv = describes a regular activity and is used to talk
about choices and habits: e.g. I like to go for a run before work. (I like it because I think it's
a good idea. I may or may not enjoy the activity while I am actually doing it).
LIKE / DISLIKE / LOVE / HATE + ing-form = is used to talk about enjoyment: e.g. I like going
for a run before work. (I enjoy the activity of going for a run before work. I may or may not do it
regularly.)
12. HATE + to-infinitive = to hate what one is about to do: e.g. I hate to interrupt, but I must talk
to you.
HATE + ing-form = to feel sorry for what one is doing: e.g. I hate making you feel
uncomfortable.
13. PREFER can be followed by Inifinitive or Gerund without important difference in meaning.
e. g. I don't go out much. I prefer to stay at home in the evenings.
e.g. I don't go out much. I prefer staying at home in the evenings.
(The meaning of these two sentences is very similar).
If we use Gerund, it can be followed by the preposition 'to' or the phrase 'rather than'.
e.g. I prefer staying in to / rather than going out. (We cannot say: I prefer to stay in to go out).
The sentences with Infinitive can also be continued with 'rather than'.
e.g. I prefer to walk rather than use a crowded bus.
Would prefer is followed by the infinitive and refers to a special occasion. NOT: I'd prefer
staying in tonight.)
e.g. I'd prefer to stay in tonight (rather) than go to the party.
14. SEE / HEAR / LISTEN / WATCH + infinitive without 'to' is used to express a complete action,
something that one saw or heard from beginning to end: e.g. I watched Kate paint the living-
room. (It took her two hours. I saw the whole action from beginning to end).
SEE / HEAR / LISTEN / WATCH + ing-form is used to express an incomplete action, an action
in progress or a long action: e.g. I saw Kate painting the living-room. (I saw Kate in the middle
of painting. I saw part of the action in progress. I didn't wait until she had finished).
15. BE INTERESTED + to-infinitive = is used to talk about reactions to things one learns:
e.g. I was interested to learn the details of the trip.
BE INTERESTED + ing-form = is used to talk about a wish to find out something:
e.g. He is interested in doing business with us.